When Fear and Belief Gripped Hungary

Introduction

The clearest Hungarian cases also warn against careless labels. The people accused of witchcraft were victims of prosecution, not members of a secret cult. The Tiszaeszlár affair was a blood-libel campaign built around a missing child, not evidence of Jewish ritual crime. Máriapócs became a place of pilgrimage rather than a scene of panic. After communism, genuine religious innovation was often mixed together with alarmist talk about “sects”. Since 2015, migration has supplied the material for a highly organised moral panic whose effects have extended from public attitudes to border law.

Witchcraft became a public explanation for misfortune

Witch trials occurred across the Kingdom of Hungary from the sixteenth century into the eighteenth, but their intensity varied greatly by region and period. Researchers have assembled hundreds of surviving proceedings, revealing accusations rooted in quarrels over illness, failed healing, livestock, fertility, household conflict and unexplained death. The suspected “witch” was often someone already entangled in a damaged social relationship: a healer blamed when treatment failed, a neighbour whose threat seemed to be followed by sickness, or a marginal person thought capable of supernatural revenge.[mtak.hu]real.mtak.huReal MTAKHungary (Published in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft7, 2014 — (Documents of Hungarian witchcraft trials. A collection of minor archival sources) Budapest. MTA Néprajzi Kutató…Published: January 7, 2014

These cases were not simply eruptions of an undifferentiated crowd. They developed through interaction between popular beliefs and legal institutions. Villagers supplied stories of curses and harmful magic; magistrates transformed those stories into formal accusations; interrogations and torture could then produce elaborate confessions about demonic pacts or gatherings. In this way, courts did not merely react to fear. They gave scattered suspicions an official narrative and encouraged witnesses to reinterpret ordinary misfortunes as evidence of organised supernatural crime.[SciSpace]scispace.comWitch-Hunting in Early Modern HungaryOne of the initial projects of the witchcraft research group was to create a database of ear…

The Szeged prosecutions of 1728–29

The most famous Hungarian witch-hunt took place at Szeged in 1728–29. Recent archival research describes it as the largest concentrated series of witchcraft prosecutions in Hungary, involving at least 25 individual proceedings and 15 death sentences. Earlier summaries differ slightly over the final number executed, which is a reminder that even a well-known case must be reconstructed from incomplete and sometimes inconsistent records.[SZTE Repository of Dissertations]doktori.bibl.u-szeged.huSZTE Repository of Dissertations EnglishSZTE Repository of DissertationsEnglish Abstract The great witch hunt of Szeged (1728–…August 28, 2023 — The great witch hunt of Szege…Published: August 28, 2023

The trials unfolded during an exceptionally severe drought on the Great Hungarian Plain. Crop failure, hunger, disease and economic strain created demand for an explanation, but climate alone did not cause a witch-hunt. Local political tensions and the decisions of Szeged’s authorities converted environmental crisis into persecution. Accused residents were said to have entered relations with the Devil, interfered with the weather and brought punishment upon the community. Among them were healers and socially prominent figures, including an elderly former town judge.[copernicus.org]cp.copernicus.orgPublications Documentary data and the study of the past droughts1728–1729 (notably blamed for the infamous witch-hunt of Szeged. – see Sect. 4.4.3), and the early 1790s drought that resulted in a crisi…

This combination made the episode especially contagious:

The Szeged case is therefore better understood as a judicial and political witch panic than as a spontaneous psychological epidemic. Real suffering was displaced onto alleged supernatural offenders. The prosecutions promised control over drought and disorder while leaving their material causes untouched.

Hungarian witch trials declined as central authorities became more sceptical of local proceedings. Under Maria Theresa, cases were increasingly subjected to review and restrictive oversight, helping to remove witchcraft from the sphere of executable crime. Historians do not present this simply as a sudden victory of reason over superstition. It was also a transfer of power: local courts lost freedom to pursue accusations that central administrators considered procedurally unreliable or socially disruptive.[Academia]academia.eduA Witch-Hunt in Szeged in the Early Eighteenth CenturyFor witchcraft in general see Éva Pócs, Between the Living and the Dead. A Perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age. (Bud…

A weeping icon created pilgrimage, not mass hysteria

In 1696, worshippers in the north-eastern village of Máriapócs reported that an icon of the Virgin Mary had begun to shed tears. News spread beyond the village, witnesses were questioned, and the original image was eventually removed on imperial orders and taken to Vienna. Máriapócs nevertheless remained an important pilgrimage centre, particularly after later reports of weeping associated with the replacement icon.[Mandadb]en.mandadb.huOpen source on mandadb.hu.

The episode belongs in Hungary’s history of contagious belief, but calling it a panic would misrepresent it. There was no accused enemy, judicial persecution or epidemic of involuntary symptoms. The central belief was hopeful: the tears were interpreted as a divine sign, and stories of healing and protection increased the icon’s sacred reputation. Church and imperial intervention did not suppress the devotion; they investigated, authenticated and redirected it.

Máriapócs demonstrates how the same mechanisms that spread fear can also spread wonder. A striking event was reported by witnesses, repeated through religious networks, connected to existing expectations about miraculous images and reinforced by official attention. Pilgrimage then gave the belief a durable physical centre. Whether one regards the tears as miraculous, natural or unexplained, the documented social fact is that the reports generated organised devotion rather than chaotic collective behaviour.

The case also shows why “miracle panic” should be used sparingly. Some miracle reports provoke alarm, accusations or crowd disorder. Máriapócs instead became an institutionally managed sacred tradition. Its cultural importance lies in the relationship between local testimony, Habsburg authority, Greek Catholic identity and the ability of a reported marvel to reshape a small settlement’s place in the religious geography of Central Europe.

Tiszaeszlár turned a disappearance into a blood-libel campaign

On 1 April 1882, a Christian teenage girl, Eszter Solymosi, disappeared from the village of Tiszaeszlár. A rumour soon claimed that local Jews had killed her and taken her blood for a religious ritual. The allegation revived the medieval blood libel: the false belief that Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes. It had no foundation in Jewish practice, but it offered agitators an emotionally powerful story involving a missing child, secrecy and imagined religious violence.[Yad Vashem]yadvashem.orgprewar jewish life in budapestprewar jewish life in budapest

The accusation did not remain a village rumour. Politicians and activists used it to promote organised antisemitism, while newspapers, illustrations and pamphlets carried the case across Austria-Hungary and abroad. Visual propaganda transformed legal participants into recognisable heroes, villains and supposed witnesses. The affair became a media spectacle in which audiences could follow an apparently unfolding conspiracy long before the evidence had been tested in court.[hypotheses.org]mws.hypotheses.orgOpen source on hypotheses.org.

A crucial part of the prosecution rested on testimony attributed to a Jewish boy, Móric Scharf. Later cultural and historical treatments have focused on the coercive conditions under which his story was produced and rehearsed. His testimony supplied the dramatic detail the accusation required, but the proceedings ultimately failed to establish that a ritual murder had occurred. All the defendants were acquitted in 1883.[Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comOpen source on tandfonline.com.

The acquittal did not undo the panic. Antisemitic agitation had already encouraged intimidation and violence, while the case helped political entrepreneurs present Jews as an alien population protected by liberal elites. The imagined crime mattered less than the political uses to which it could be put. A court could reject the charge, but it could not force audiences to abandon a narrative that explained social change through conspiracy.

Tiszaeszlár illustrates several features of a mature moral panic:

The affair remains culturally important because it has repeatedly been revisited in literature, theatre, scholarship and public debate. Iván Fischer’s opera The Red Heifer, for example, returned to the case as a warning about the persistence of antisemitic storytelling. Its continuing sensitivity shows that historical panics do not survive merely because people forget the facts. They survive because later movements find the underlying narrative useful.[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]ushmm.orgOpen source on ushmm.org.

Religious freedom after communism produced both experimentation and fear

State socialism tightly restricted independent religious life. After the political transformation of 1989–90, Hungary experienced a much more open religious marketplace. Smaller Christian churches, New Age networks, esoteric healers, neo-pagan groups, alternative spiritualities and forms of neo-shamanism gained visibility. Some were newly established; others had existed with little public recognition or had survived under state pressure.[wesley.hu]wesley.huJános Főiskola New religious phenomena in HungaryJános Főiskola New religious phenomena in Hungary

This expansion was real, but public descriptions of it were often imprecise. Unfamiliar communities could be grouped together as “sects” regardless of their theology, structure or behaviour. The label might refer to a small Protestant church, a commercial healing network, an authoritarian spiritual organisation or simply a religion disliked by established institutions. It could therefore express a genuine concern about manipulation while also serving as a weapon against minority belief.

The social setting helps explain the appeal of both new movements and the fear surrounding them. The collapse of the old political order brought freedom, but also insecurity, rapid economic change and a crisis of trusted authority. Alternative spiritualities offered healing, identity, national renewal or access to supposedly suppressed wisdom. At the same time, families, churches and journalists faced practices for which they had few familiar categories. Foreign stories about brainwashing, destructive cults and ritual abuse supplied alarming templates that could be applied before a particular Hungarian group had been carefully investigated.

Scholars studying Hungary’s post-socialist “cultic milieu” have therefore resisted a simple choice between celebration and condemnation. Some organisations may exert coercive control or exploit followers; such conduct should be examined through evidence about leadership, money, isolation, threats and abuse. Yet unusual belief, energetic conversion or minority status is not itself proof of harm.[JSTOR]jstor.orgOpen source on jstor.org.

Hungarian neo-shamanic and national-spiritual movements present an additional complication. They can combine ritual experimentation with stories about ancient origins, the sacred destiny of the nation or knowledge supposedly concealed by official scholarship. These are not necessarily apocalyptic groups, and participants vary widely. However, the mixture of religion, national identity and conspiracy thinking can create a setting in which historical claims become tests of loyalty rather than questions open to evidence.[eTD]etd.ceu.edue TDSocial Constructions of the Native Faith: Mytho-historicale TDSocial Constructions of the Native Faith: Mytho-historical

The most useful distinction is therefore between new religious activity, public anxiety about it and demonstrable harm. Treating all three as the same thing reproduces the logic of a moral panic: a broad category is made threatening, exceptional cases are treated as typical, and suspicion substitutes for investigation.

The 2015 migration crisis became a state-amplified moral panic

Large numbers of refugees and other migrants travelled through the Balkans in 2015, many seeking to continue towards Germany or other Western European countries. Hungary faced a genuine administrative and humanitarian challenge as people arrived at railway stations, reception facilities and the Serbian border. Yet the political presentation of the crisis went far beyond practical questions of registration, accommodation and asylum law.

The Hungarian government launched a national consultation and billboard campaign linking immigration with crime, terrorism, lost employment and cultural danger. Messages ostensibly addressed to newcomers were written in Hungarian, indicating that their primary audience was the domestic electorate. Migration was presented not simply as a policy problem but as an organised assault on national security and Christian civilisation.[lemonde.fr]lemonde.frLe Monde.fr In Hungary, a decade of dismantling asylum rightsInitially a transit country, Hungary implemented harsh anti-migration measures, including criminalizing aid to migrants and limiting asyl…

Researchers have explicitly described this strategy as pressing a “moral panic button”. The phrase points to the deliberate production of a threatening public category: “the migrant” became a folk devil onto whom fears about terrorism, demographic decline, economic insecurity and loss of sovereignty could be projected. The campaign was especially striking because most people arriving in Hungary were in transit and had little intention of settling there.[edu.pl]ceemr.uw.edu.plundeserving refugees migration discourse hungary 2015 and 2022undeserving refugees migration discourse hungary 2015 and 2022

Fear spread through more than official speeches. Government-aligned media repeatedly circulated stories of danger, while local rumours encouraged people to report strangers as possible migrants. A study of such “migrant spotting” incidents found that some of those publicly suspected were Hungarian citizens and that the people reported had not committed offences. The category had become visually and socially contagious: unfamiliar appearance, foreign language or mere presence could trigger suspicion.[War on the Rocks]warontherocks.comWar on the Rocks Migrants, Moral Panic, and Intolerance in Hungarian PoliticsWar on the Rocks Migrants, Moral Panic, and Intolerance in Hungarian Politics

Unlike a short-lived rumour panic, this campaign produced durable institutions. Hungary built border fences, criminalised certain forms of unauthorised crossing, expanded detention and pushback practices, and sharply restricted access to asylum procedures. European courts and human-rights organisations challenged significant parts of this system, but the security framework remained politically influential and inspired admiration among other European nationalist movements.[lemonde.fr]lemonde.frLe Monde.fr In Hungary, a decade of dismantling asylum rightsInitially a transit country, Hungary implemented harsh anti-migration measures, including criminalizing aid to migrants and limiting asyl…

It would be misleading to say that every Hungarian concern about migration was invented. The movement of large numbers of people created real pressure, and European governments faced difficult questions about borders, asylum, policing and solidarity. Moral-panic analysis asks a different question: whether the scale and character of the proclaimed threat were exaggerated, generalised and politically managed in ways that encouraged hostility towards an entire population.

The contrast between responses to different refugee groups strengthens that interpretation. Research comparing 2015 with the reception of people fleeing Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 found sharply different official narratives. Ukrainians were more readily represented as deserving neighbours, while predominantly non-European and Muslim arrivals in 2015 had been framed as cultural and security threats. The difference suggests that “refugee fear” was never a uniform response to displacement; it was shaped by race, religion, geopolitics and political usefulness.[CEEMR]ceemr.uw.edu.plundeserving refugees migration discourse hungary 2015 and 2022undeserving refugees migration discourse hungary 2015 and 2022

What these cases reveal about contagious belief

Hungary’s strongest documented examples do not support a national stereotype of a population unusually prone to hysteria. They show more general human processes operating under particular historical conditions.

First, collective fear usually begins with a genuine uncertainty: drought, illness, a missing child, political upheaval or rapid migration. The panic lies not in recognising that a problem exists, but in closing uncertainty too quickly around an emotionally satisfying explanation.

Second, stories spread most effectively when they draw on a familiar cultural script. Witchcraft explained misfortune through secret malice. Blood libel turned a disappearance into an imagined religious conspiracy. “Dangerous sect” language transformed religious novelty into a threat to families. Anti-migration rhetoric presented mobile and diverse people as a single hostile force.

Third, institutions determine whether fear fades or acquires power. A rumour repeated by neighbours is one thing; the same rumour recorded by a court, printed in newspapers or displayed on state-funded billboards becomes materially harder to resist. Authorities can investigate and calm a scare, but they can also authenticate it, reward its promoters and translate it into punishment.

Fourth, disproof rarely repairs all the damage. The Tiszaeszlár defendants were acquitted, but antisemitic politics benefited from the spectacle. Early modern prosecutions ended, yet local folklore preserved the identity of Szeged as a city of witches. Migration numbers changed, but the political language of permanent emergency continued.

Finally, Hungary’s history demonstrates why “mass hysteria” is often too blunt a term. The Szeged trials were an institutional persecution. Máriapócs was a miracle tradition. Tiszaeszlár was an antisemitic rumour and media panic. Post-socialist “sect” anxiety mixed legitimate safeguarding questions with hostility towards minority religions. The migration campaign was a modern state-amplified moral panic. Keeping these categories separate does more than improve terminology: it identifies who held power, who suffered, and how belief was converted into action.

Why the history still matters

These episodes remain relevant because their mechanisms are not confined to the past. Environmental stress still encourages searches for human culprits. Stories involving endangered children still bypass caution and demand immediate action. Religious and ethnic minorities can still be represented as secret networks. New media can accelerate the same process once driven by sermons, interrogation records, pamphlets and illustrated newspapers.

Hungary also offers an unusually clear view of the relationship between panic and authority. The decisive moments were not necessarily those in which the largest number of people privately believed a claim. They were the moments when institutions acted as though it were true: when magistrates prosecuted weather-making witches, politicians promoted a ritual-murder accusation, commentators treated religious difference as evidence of coercion, or a government designed law and public communication around an image of permanent invasion.

The lasting lesson is therefore not that crowds are foolish. People interpret frightening events with the stories available to them, especially when reliable information is scarce. The greater danger arises when powerful institutions select the most divisive story, repeat it until it appears self-evident, and direct its consequences towards people least able to defend themselves.

Amazon book picks

Further Reading

Books and field guides related to When Fear and Belief Gripped Hungary. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.

Book

Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds

By Charles Mackay

Rating: 4.0/5 from 5 Google Books ratings

Provides historical comparisons for moral panics and rumor.

See on Amazon

Book

Witches and Neighbors

By Robin Briggs

First published 1996. Subjects: History, Persecution, Witchcraft, Witchcraft, europe.

See on Amazon

Book

The witch

By Ronald Hutton

First published 2017. Subjects: Witchcraft, Witch hunting, Witches, History, Witchcraft, europe.

See on Amazon

Book

The pursuit of the millennium

By Norman Rufus Colin Cohn

First published 1961. Subjects: Church history, Medieval Sects, Millennium (Eschatology), History of doctrines.

See on Amazon

Browse more on Amazon:Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of CrowdsWitches and NeighborsThe witch

As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.

Endnotes

1. Source: real.mtak.hu
Title: Real MTAKHungary (Published in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft
Link:https://real.mtak.hu/78777/1/SzKristof_WitchHuntinginHungaryABCClio2004_u.pdf

Published: January 7, 2014

2. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/35545818/Healers_in_Hungarian_Witch_Trials

3. Source: academia.edu
Title: A Witch-Hunt in Szeged in the Early Eighteenth Century
Link:https://www.academia.edu/3572760/A_Witch_Hunt_in_Szeged_in_the_Early_Eighteenth_Century_In_Blanka_Szeghyov%C3%A1_ed_The_Role_of_Magic_in_the_Past_Learned_and_Popular_Magic_Popular_Beliefs_and_Diversity_of_Attitudes_Pro_Historia_Bratislava_2005_pp

4. Source: scispace.com
Link:https://scispace.com/pdf/witch-hunting-in-early-modern-hungary-58532hv7ty.pdf

5. Source: cp.copernicus.org
Title: Publications Documentary data and the study of the past droughts
Link:https://cp.copernicus.org/preprints/cp-2018-118/cp-2018-118.pdf

6. Source: en.mandadb.hu
Link:https://en.mandadb.hu/cikk/1291219/Marian_shrines

7. Source: mws.hypotheses.org
Link:https://mws.hypotheses.org/37349

8. Source: perspectivia.net
Link:https://www.perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/pnet_derivate_00000841/9783737009775.263.pdf

9. Source: wesley.hu
Title: János Főiskola New religious phenomena in Hungary
Link:https://wesley.hu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Kamaras_Istvan_New_religious_phenomena_in_Hungary.pdf

10. Source: jstor.org
Link:https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/nr.2001.4.2.322

11. Source: axios.com
Title: Border fences and refugee bans: Hungary did it
Link:https://www.axios.com/2017/12/15/border-fences-and-refugee-bans-hungary-did-it-fast-1513300201

12. Source: ceemr.uw.edu.pl
Title: undeserving refugees migration discourse hungary 2015 and 2022
Link:https://ceemr.uw.edu.pl/vol-14-no-2-2025/special-section-two/undeserving-refugees-migration-discourse-hungary-2015-and-2022

13. Source: time.com
Link:https://time.com/4508120/hungray-refugees-amnesty-report/

14. Source: academia.edu
Title: Tiszaeszlar Blood Libel
Link:https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Tiszaeszlar_Blood_Libel

15. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/28894147/_I_was_angry_with_the_angels_for_f_cking_me_over_New_Age_healers_and_post_secular_angel_cult_in_Hungary

16. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/2395018/Apocalypse_in_Early_UFO_and_Alien_Based_Religions_Christian_and_Theosophical_Themes

17. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/128966443/Post_Socialist_Cancel_Culture_The_Contested_Politics_of_Memory_in_Post_Socialist_Romania

18. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/90916674/Focus_on_Religion_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe

19. Source: academia.edu
Link:https://www.academia.edu/42898388/Ancient_Gods_New_Ages_Lessons_from_Hungarian_Paganism

20. Source: scispace.com
Title: documentary data and the study of the past droughts an fi5hxpr19u
Link:https://scispace.com/pdf/documentary-data-and-the-study-of-the-past-droughts-an-fi5hxpr19u.pdf

21. Source: wesley.hu
Link:https://wesley.hu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Kamaras_Istvan_Civil_Society_and_Religion_in_Post_Communist_Hungary.pdf

22. Source: jstor.org
Link:https://www.jstor.org/stable/44504013

23. Source: doktori.bibl.u-szeged.hu
Title: SZTE Repository of Dissertations English
Link:https://doktori.bibl.u-szeged.hu/11872/3/Brandl_Abstract_2023.pdf

Published: August 28, 2023

24. Source: yadvashem.org
Title: prewar jewish life in budapest
Link:https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/general/prewar-jewish-life-in-budapest.html

25. Source: Wikipedia
Title: Tiszaeszlár affair
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiszaeszl%C3%A1r_affair

26. Source: wwv.yadvashem.org
Link:https://wwv.yadvashem.org/download/about_holocaust/studies/BrahamENGPRINT.pdf

27. Source: tandfonline.com
Link:https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13501674.2025.2479253

28. Source: ushmm.org
Link:https://www.ushmm.org/antisemitism/podcast/voices-on-antisemitism/ivan-fischer

29. Source: etd.ceu.edu
Title: e TDSocial Constructions of the Native Faith: Mytho-historical
Link:https://www.etd.ceu.edu/2012/kolozsi_adam.pdf

30. Source: lemonde.fr
Title: Le Monde.fr In Hungary, a decade of dismantling asylum rights
Link:https://www.lemonde.fr/en/opinion/article/2025/07/02/in-hungary-a-decade-of-dismantling-asylum-rights_6742928_23.html

31. Source: frontiersin.org
Link:https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/political-science/articles/10.3389/fpos.2026.1811614/full

32. Source: warontherocks.com
Title: War on the Rocks Migrants, Moral Panic, and Intolerance in Hungarian Politics
Link:https://warontherocks.com/migrants-moral-panic-and-intolerance-in-hungarian-politics/

33. Source: Wikipedia
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary

34. Source: Wikipedia
Link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1riap%C3%B3cs

35. Source: collections.yadvashem.org
Link:https://collections.yadvashem.org/en/movies/39121

36. Source: collections.ushmm.org
Link:https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn544955

37. Source: collections.ushmm.org
Link:https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/bib108043

38. Source: GOV.UK
Link:https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/hungary

39. Source: iaunrc.indiana.edu
Link:https://iaunrc.indiana.edu/about/our-region/countries/hungary.html

40. Source: intersections.tk.mta.hu
Link:https://intersections.tk.mta.hu/index.php/intersections/article/view/501/244

41. Source: czasopisma.ignatianum.edu.pl
Link:https://czasopisma.ignatianum.edu.pl/rfi/article/download/2025.3104.19/3328

42. Source: searchworks.stanford.edu
Link:https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/3976935

43. Source: freedomhouse.org
Link:https://freedomhouse.org/country/hungary

44. Source: hrw.org
Link:https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/hungary

45. Source: cms.law
Link:https://cms.law/en/hun/legal-updates/hungary-country-overview

Additional References

46. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321367836_Witchcraft_and_Demonology_in_Hungary_and_Transylvania

47. Source: youtube.com
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U10btCanJiI

48. Source: youtube.com
Title: Department Seminar: Endre Sik, The Hungarian version of de-democratization
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rV0fxA7lrc8

49. Source: youtube.com
Title: The Blood Libel in Tiszaeszlár (told by historian Alexey Kuznetsov)
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvQ9keDfHcg

50. Source: youtube.com
Title: Blood Libel: On the Trail of an Antisemitic Myth, talk by Magda Teter
Link:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4Cb0zGNH0o

51. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385514288_Popular_Religion_Hungary_Kurti-Ramer_Civic_and_Uncivic_values_Routledge_2025

52. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317226633_I_joined_the_Party_to_keep_ourselves_out_of_the_System_Neo-Pagan_Survival_Strategies_in_Socialist_Hungary

53. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313714001_Apocalypse_in_Early_UFO_and_Alien-Based_Religions_Christian_and_Theosophical_Themes

54. Source: researchgate.net
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333559063Attitude_Changes_towards_Immigrants_in_the_Turbulent_Years_of_the%27Migrant_Crisis%27_and_Anti-Immigrant_Campaign_in_Hungary

55. Source: nationalarchives.gov.uk
Link:https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/early-modern-witch-trials/