When Belief Became a Public Crisis in Bahrain

Introduction

These episodes should not be treated as versions of the same phenomenon. The Qarmatians were a real millenarian movement that established a state and used organised violence. Modern witchcraft incidents are usually mixtures of sincere supernatural belief, alleged fraud, alarming objects and political demands for stronger policing. The Al Tajdeed controversy, meanwhile, shows how the label “cult” can become part of a moral and legal struggle over religious authority. Together, they reveal a recurring Bahraini tension: unusual beliefs are rarely viewed as merely private matters when they appear to challenge family stability, public religion or political order.

The Qarmatians: Bahrain’s millenarian state

The most important movement in Bahrain’s history of apocalyptic and collective belief is the Qarmatian state of the ninth to eleventh centuries. It was not a small, secretive “cult” in the modern popular sense. It was an armed revolutionary movement, a religious community and eventually a regional government.

There is an important geographical complication. Medieval “Bahrain” often meant a much larger region of eastern Arabia, including areas now in Saudi Arabia as well as the present-day islands. The Qarmatian centre was largely in al-Hasa on the mainland, although its history is inseparable from the wider Bahrain region and later struggles on Bahrain Island. Describing it simply as an episode confined to the modern kingdom would therefore be misleading.[Minerva Access]minerva-access.unimelb.edu.auMinerva AccessThe Qarmatian Da'wah and Grievance: An Overviewby L Plummer · 2022 — Nevertheless, the Qarmatian movement found adherents f…

The movement emerged from the revolutionary Ismaili missionary networks of the late ninth century. Abu Sa‘id al-Jannabi gained control of much of eastern Arabia around the beginning of the tenth century and created a durable Qarmatian polity. Members were initiated into an esoteric religious system, while the movement promised a transformed social and political order. Historians have described its programme in terms of messianism, redistribution and communal organisation, although much of the surviving description comes from opponents and must be read cautiously.[araku.ac.ir]hsow.journal.araku.ac.irInvestigating the Bahraini Qarmatian Warfare Practices and…September 23, 2018 — by F Saboorifar · 2018 — The main objective of the pre…Published: September 23, 2018

The expectation of a coming redeemer

At the heart of Qarmatian belief was the expectation that established religious and political arrangements were approaching a decisive transformation. Such millenarian movements do not necessarily expect the literal destruction of the world. More often, they anticipate the end of the existing age and the arrival of a divinely guided order.

This expectation helped the Qarmatians interpret military success as evidence that history was moving in their favour. It also encouraged unusually bold attacks on Abbasid power, trade routes and pilgrimage caravans. One study of Qarmatian warfare argues that their “saviourist” convictions influenced their endurance and tactics, although religious belief was clearly intertwined with taxation, territorial control and rivalry among regional powers.[hsow.journal.araku.ac.ir]hsow.journal.araku.ac.irInvestigating the Bahraini Qarmatian Warfare Practices and…September 23, 2018 — by F Saboorifar · 2018 — The main objective of the pre…Published: September 23, 2018

Under Abu Tahir al-Jannabi, the Qarmatian state raided major Iraqi cities and threatened the Abbasid capital. In 930, its forces attacked Mecca during the pilgrimage, killed pilgrims and removed the Black Stone from the Kaaba. The stone remained in Qarmatian possession for roughly two decades before being returned. The assault created fear far beyond the immediate victims because it struck at the physical centre of Muslim sacred life.[Wikipedia]WikipediaAbu Tahir al-JannabiAbu Tahir al-Jannabi

The failed messiah of 931

The clearest episode of collective apocalyptic expectation came shortly afterwards. In 931, Abu Tahir entrusted authority to a young Persian, Abu’l-Fadl al-Isfahani, whom he apparently identified as the expected redeemer. Accounts describe a short and violent rule during which established religious practices were rejected and prominent people were executed.

The experiment collapsed after about 80 days. Abu Tahir had the young man killed, apparently concluding that he was not the promised figure. The failure damaged the movement’s religious credibility, although it did not immediately destroy the Qarmatian state.[Wikipedia]WikipediaOpen source on wikipedia.org.

This episode resembles other failed-prophecy movements in one respect: belief did not simply vanish when expectation collided with events. Political institutions, military power and community interests allowed Qarmatian rule to continue. It weakened gradually through military defeats, internal divisions and regional revolt rather than disappearing at the instant its messianic claim failed.

Movement, state and hostile legend

Later writers often portrayed the Qarmatians as incomprehensible enemies of religion. Their attack on Mecca gives that reputation a strong factual foundation, but it also encouraged the accumulation of hostile stories. Medieval accounts were generally written by religious and political opponents, who had every reason to present the movement as monstrous, irreligious or socially perverse.

Modern historians therefore distinguish between several layers:

Calling the Qarmatians a “cult” obscures more than it explains. “Millenarian religious movement”, “revolutionary Ismaili movement” or “Qarmatian state” are more precise. The movement remains culturally important because its seizure of the Black Stone is one of the most dramatic challenges ever made to the authority of the Abbasid order and the sanctity of the pilgrimage.

Why witchcraft scares keep returning

Modern Bahrain’s most visible supernatural scares concern sorcery, talismans and objects interpreted as evidence of harmful magic. These incidents are not equivalent to historical witch hunts involving mass executions. They are better understood as recurring moral and crime scares in which fear of supernatural harm overlaps with concerns about deception, family conflict and social disorder.

In one reported case, objects bearing women’s names washed ashore near Budaiya. A member of parliament described them as apparently “satanic”, and they were burned amid demands for an investigation. The discovery itself was real; what the objects were intended to do, who made them and whether they had travelled from elsewhere were far less certain.[Gulf Digital News]gdnonline.comGulf Digital NewsBahrain News: Witchcraft probe callBahrain: An investigation into suspected witchcraft has been demanded after a collect…

In December 2024, another alarm followed the discovery of writings or objects buried in Barbar Cemetery. Bahraini press coverage described them as “witchcraft-style” or “satanic-like”, and a parliamentary committee sought discussions with government ministries about an alleged revival of such practices. The language of resurgence implied an organised trend, but the available public reporting established the existence of alarming materials more clearly than the existence of a growing occult movement.[Gulf Digital News]gdnonline.comOpen source on gdnonline.com.

This is a familiar mechanism in supernatural scares. An ambiguous object is discovered; its purpose cannot easily be verified; the most threatening interpretation circulates first; and calls for official action give that interpretation greater authority. Social media can compress this process into hours, with photographs or warnings travelling much faster than forensic explanations.

Belief, fraud and family anxiety

Bahraini political arguments about sorcery often frame it not only as a religious offence but as a threat to households. Members of parliament seeking tougher penalties have claimed that alleged practitioners exploit vulnerable people and damage family unity. Earlier proposals called for prison sentences and larger fines, while reports indicated that existing law allowed punishment for related conduct.[Arabian Business]arabianbusiness.combahrain plans make sorcery criminal offence 152094bahrain plans make sorcery criminal offence 152094

Official religious-freedom reporting has noted that Bahraini authorities sometimes attach witchcraft or sorcery allegations to cases also involving theft or fraud. That distinction matters. A person may sincerely fear supernatural injury while the provable offence is taking money through deception, intimidation or false promises.[State Department]state.govOpen source on state.gov.

Several different situations can therefore be hidden beneath the single word “witchcraft”:

Treating all five as one expanding occult menace can produce a moral panic. Dismissing them all as foolishness is equally unhelpful, especially where frightened people are being exploited. The useful question is not whether authorities “believe in magic”, but what conduct can actually be demonstrated: coercion, fraud, threats, trespass, grave disturbance or another tangible offence.

From objects to “satanic” threat

The use of the word “satanic” raises the emotional temperature of these incidents. It connects an uncertain local discovery to a universal image of deliberate evil. Yet no public evidence from the Budaiya or Barbar cases established the existence of a Satanist organisation, coordinated network or imported ritual movement.

This resembles the mechanism of satanic panics elsewhere, although Bahrain has not experienced a documented campaign on the scale of the late twentieth-century scares in the United States or Britain. Symbols, unfamiliar writing and concealed objects are interpreted through existing fears. Media reports then repeat the most dramatic vocabulary because it is already being used by witnesses or officials.

The distinction between evidence and interpretation is especially important in cemeteries. Buried papers may be religious petitions, folk healing materials, attempts at sorcery, personal memorial objects or fabricated provocations. Without identified practitioners or clear provenance, their discovery supports only a limited conclusion: someone deposited unusual material there.

Al Tajdeed and the power of the “cult” label

The 2023 dispute over Al Tajdeed Cultural and Social Society is Bahrain’s clearest modern example of a cult scare becoming entangled with religious freedom, personal allegations and state prosecution.

Al Tajdeed was a registered Bahraini association promoting discussion of religious texts and Islamic jurisprudence. Its members challenged some inherited scholarly interpretations while maintaining that they were not rejecting the Quran or the teachings of the Prophet. Their online programmes angered prominent clerics, who accused the group of undermining Islam and encouraged social ostracism.[AP News]apnews.comAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning IslamAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning Islam

Critics also described the society as a cult and raised allegations about internal control, unusual claims of spiritual authority and mistreatment of members. Reporting by Amwaj.media found a complicated picture: there were serious accusations from former participants, but the public controversy was also being driven by religious opponents and politically charged family disputes. The existence of allegations did not by itself establish every claim made under the “cult” label.[Amwaj.media]amwaj.medialegal cases against cult put spotlight on freedoms in bahrainlegal cases against cult put spotlight on freedoms in bahrain

That distinction is essential. “Cult” can describe a genuinely abusive high-control group, but it is also routinely used to discredit small, unpopular or unorthodox religious movements. A fair assessment asks specific questions. Were members isolated? Were they threatened for leaving? Was money obtained deceptively? Did leaders claim powers that protected them from scrutiny? Were there verified acts of physical or psychological abuse? Those questions are more useful than assuming the label supplies its own evidence.

From social denunciation to prosecution

Three Al Tajdeed members were charged in 2023 over religious commentary. Prosecutors alleged that their statements undermined basic Islamic beliefs and insulted respected religious symbols or figures. Associated Press described a controversy dividing parts of Bahrain’s Shia community and placing the limits of religious discussion under public scrutiny.[AP News]apnews.comAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning IslamAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning Islam

Two members, Jalal al-Qassab and Redha Rajab, were subsequently sentenced to one year in prison and fined. Human Rights Watch argued that the convictions punished peaceful expression and called for them to be overturned. It also acknowledged that former members had made allegations of abusive practices, while stressing that such accusations should be investigated separately from prosecution for theological opinions.[Human Rights Watch]hrw.orgHuman Rights Watch Bahrain: Quash Religious Freedom ConvictionsHuman Rights Watch Bahrain: Quash Religious Freedom Convictions

Al Tajdeed itself said it was the target of a prolonged campaign of defamation and incitement. That was the organisation’s own account, not an independent finding, but it shows how members understood the episode: as a moral campaign in which denunciation prepared the ground for legal action.[tajdeed.org]tajdeed.orgOpen source on tajdeed.org.

The case therefore contains two questions that should not be collapsed into one. The first is whether any leaders committed demonstrable abuse against members. The second is whether questioning religious interpretation should be criminally punished. Evidence supporting concern about the first does not automatically justify state suppression of the second.

Panic, persecution or genuine danger?

Bahrain’s cases demonstrate why “mass hysteria” is often too blunt a term. None of the principal episodes is best explained as a population suddenly losing contact with reality.

The Qarmatians possessed an organised theology, army and government. Their messianic expectation was real, but so were the material conflicts in which they operated. Modern sorcery scares involve authentic public fear, yet may also include fraud, unlawful conduct or genuine religious practices. The Al Tajdeed controversy combined theological disagreement, unverified and contested abuse allegations, social denunciation and criminal prosecution.

A more accurate vocabulary separates the processes involved:

Millenarian movement describes a community expecting a radical divinely guided transformation, as in the Qarmatian case.

Moral panic describes a disproportionate public reaction in which a person, practice or group is presented as a major threat to social values before the evidence supports that scale of danger.

Rumour panic occurs when uncertain claims spread rapidly because they fit existing fears, as can happen after the discovery of alleged magical objects.

Religious persecution involves punishment or exclusion because of peaceful belief or expression.

Fraud or coercive control refers to demonstrable conduct rather than theological difference and should be investigated using ordinary evidential standards.

No reliable source located for Bahrain documents a major episode of mass psychogenic illness comparable with widely studied school fainting outbreaks elsewhere. That absence should not be filled with speculation. It may reflect a genuine lack of such events, limited English-language reporting, or the fact that local cases were recorded under medical or educational categories rather than the language of collective hysteria.

What shaped Bahrain’s scares

Several features of Bahraini society help explain why religious scares can acquire public force.

First, religion is closely connected to communal identity and political life. Disputes over interpretation may therefore be understood not merely as intellectual disagreements but as challenges to the integrity of a community. The Al Tajdeed affair unfolded within Bahrain’s wider sectarian and political tensions, including the long aftermath of the 2011 uprising and the sensitivity surrounding relations between a Sunni-led state and a Shia-majority citizen population.[AP News]apnews.comAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning IslamAP News Bahrain charges religious reformers with questioning Islam

Second, Bahrain is a small and densely connected society. Family networks, religious institutions, parliamentary politics and digital media overlap. Allegations can move quickly from private dispute to public campaign, particularly when prominent clerics, activists or members of parliament become involved.

Third, sorcery fears offer an explanation for private misfortune that is emotionally powerful and difficult to disprove. Illness, marital breakdown, infertility, financial loss or sudden changes in behaviour may be attributed to deliberate supernatural attack. That belief can create a market for supposed healers and counter-magicians, some of whom may exploit clients financially.

Finally, the law can turn cultural anxiety into an official category. Once police, prosecutors or legislators speak of witchcraft as a distinct threat, ambiguous cases may be interpreted through that frame. Conversely, authorities may be responding to real complaints of fraud and abuse but use supernatural terminology because that is how victims describe their experience.

What Bahrain’s history actually shows

Bahrain’s history does not support a dramatic narrative of repeated mass delusion. It offers something more revealing: several examples of how collective belief becomes socially dangerous through different mechanisms.

The Qarmatians show the power of millenarian expectation when it fuses with military organisation and state-building. Their failed recognition of a redeemer in 931 is a genuine episode of apocalyptic belief, while their raids and attack on Mecca were calculated political violence rather than spontaneous hysteria.

Modern witchcraft scares show how ambiguous discoveries can activate deep fears about hidden harm. The strongest evidence generally establishes that objects were found, complaints were made or money was allegedly taken. Claims of organised satanic revival or widespread occult conspiracy remain much less secure.

The Al Tajdeed controversy shows the danger of using “cult” as both accusation and conclusion. Serious allegations about internal abuse deserve evidence-based investigation. They should not be confused with a campaign to punish unorthodox religious speech.

The enduring lesson is that belief alone does not explain these events. Fear spreads most effectively when it attaches itself to existing pressures: political insecurity, sectarian boundaries, family distress, economic exploitation and anxiety about who has the authority to define acceptable religion. Bahrain’s cases matter not because they prove that whole populations became irrational, but because they show how institutions, rumours and contested beliefs can reinforce one another until uncertainty is treated as danger and dissent as a public threat.

Amazon book picks

Further Reading

Books and field guides related to When Belief Became a Public Crisis in Bahrain. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.

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The Assassins

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Provides broad historical context for revolutionary religious movements including the Qarmatians.

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A history of the Arab peoples

By Albert Habib Hourani, Albert Hourani et al.

First published 1991. Subjects: Arab countries, Historia, History, open_syllabus_project, Arabs.

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The Shia Revival

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First published 2006. Subjects: Islam and politics, Sunnites, Middle east, politics and government, Shiites.

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The Venture of Islam, Volume 1

By Marshall G. S. Hodgson

First published 1977.

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Endnotes

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Published: September 23, 2018

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26. Source: hrw.org
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27. Source: gdnonline.com
Title: EXCLUSIVE MPs launch probe into revival of witchcraft style practices
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28. Source: civicus.org
Title: human rights
Link:https://www.civicus.org/index.php/component/tags/tag/human-rights?start=480

Additional References

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31. Source: researchgate.net
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